Writing an OS in Rust (First Edition)

Philipp Oppermann's blog

A minimal Multiboot Kernel

No longer updated! You are viewing the a post of the first edition of “Writing an OS in Rust”, which is no longer updated. You can find the second edition here.

This post explains how to create a minimal x86 operating system kernel using the Multiboot standard. In fact, it will just boot and print OK to the screen. In subsequent blog posts we will extend it using the Rust programming language.

I tried to explain everything in detail and to keep the code as simple as possible. If you have any questions, suggestions or other issues, please leave a comment or create an issue on Github. The source code is available in a repository, too.

Note that this tutorial is written mainly for Linux. For some known problems on OS X see the comment section and this issue. If you want to use a virtual Linux machine, you can find instructions and a Vagrantfile in Ashley Willams's x86-kernel repository.

🔗 Overview

When you turn on a computer, it loads the BIOS from some special flash memory. The BIOS runs self test and initialization routines of the hardware, then it looks for bootable devices. If it finds one, the control is transferred to its bootloader, which is a small portion of executable code stored at the device's beginning. The bootloader has to determine the location of the kernel image on the device and load it into memory. It also needs to switch the CPU to the so-called protected mode because x86 CPUs start in the very limited real mode by default (to be compatible to programs from 1978).

We won't write a bootloader because that would be a complex project on its own (if you really want to do it, check out Rolling Your Own Bootloader). Instead we will use one of the many well-tested bootloaders out there to boot our kernel from a CD-ROM. But which one?

🔗 Multiboot

Fortunately there is a bootloader standard: the Multiboot Specification. Our kernel just needs to indicate that it supports Multiboot and every Multiboot-compliant bootloader can boot it. We will use the Multiboot 2 specification (PDF) together with the well-known GRUB 2 bootloader.

To indicate our Multiboot 2 support to the bootloader, our kernel must start with a Multiboot Header, which has the following format:

Field Type Value
magic number u32 0xE85250D6
architecture u32 0 for i386, 4 for MIPS
header length u32 total header size, including tags
checksum u32 -(magic + architecture + header_length)
tags variable
end tag (u16, u16, u32) (0, 0, 8)

Converted to a x86 assembly file it looks like this (Intel syntax):

section .multiboot_header
header_start:
    dd 0xe85250d6                ; magic number (multiboot 2)
    dd 0                         ; architecture 0 (protected mode i386)
    dd header_end - header_start ; header length
    ; checksum
    dd 0x100000000 - (0xe85250d6 + 0 + (header_end - header_start))

    ; insert optional multiboot tags here

    ; required end tag
    dw 0    ; type
    dw 0    ; flags
    dd 8    ; size
header_end:

If you don't know x86 assembly, here is some quick guide:

We can already assemble this file (which I called multiboot_header.asm) using nasm. It produces a flat binary by default, so the resulting file just contains our 24 bytes (in little endian if you work on a x86 machine):

> nasm multiboot_header.asm
> hexdump -x multiboot_header
0000000    50d6    e852    0000    0000    0018    0000    af12    17ad
0000010    0000    0000    0008    0000
0000018

🔗 The Boot Code

To boot our kernel, we must add some code that the bootloader can call. Let's create a file named boot.asm:

global start

section .text
bits 32
start:
    ; print `OK` to screen
    mov dword [0xb8000], 0x2f4b2f4f
    hlt

There are some new commands:

Through assembling, viewing and disassembling we can see the CPU Opcodes in action:

> nasm boot.asm
> hexdump -x boot
0000000    05c7    8000    000b    2f4b    2f4f    00f4
000000b
> ndisasm -b 32 boot
00000000  C70500800B004B2F  mov dword [dword 0xb8000],0x2f4b2f4f
         -4F2F
0000000A  F4                hlt

🔗 Building the Executable

To boot our executable later through GRUB, it should be an ELF executable. So we want nasm to create ELF object files instead of plain binaries. To do that, we simply pass the ‑f elf64 argument to it.

To create the ELF executable, we need to link the object files together. We use a custom linker script named linker.ld:

ENTRY(start)

SECTIONS {
    . = 1M;

    .boot :
    {
        /* ensure that the multiboot header is at the beginning */
        *(.multiboot_header)
    }

    .text :
    {
        *(.text)
    }
}

Let's translate it:

So let's create the ELF object files and link them using our new linker script:

> nasm -f elf64 multiboot_header.asm
> nasm -f elf64 boot.asm
> ld -n -o kernel.bin -T linker.ld multiboot_header.o boot.o

It's important to pass the -n (or --nmagic) flag to the linker, which disables the automatic section alignment in the executable. Otherwise the linker may page align the .boot section in the executable file. If that happens, GRUB isn't able to find the Multiboot header because it isn't at the beginning anymore.

We can use objdump to print the sections of the generated executable and verify that the .boot section has a low file offset:

> objdump -h kernel.bin
kernel.bin:     file format elf64-x86-64

Sections:
Idx Name      Size      VMA               LMA               File off  Algn
  0 .boot     00000018  0000000000100000  0000000000100000  00000080  2**0
              CONTENTS, ALLOC, LOAD, READONLY, DATA
  1 .text     0000000b  0000000000100020  0000000000100020  000000a0  2**4
              CONTENTS, ALLOC, LOAD, READONLY, CODE

Note: The ld and objdump commands are platform specific. If you're not working on x86_64 architecture, you will need to cross compile binutils. Then use x86_64‑elf‑ld and x86_64‑elf‑objdump instead of ld and objdump.

🔗 Creating the ISO

All PC BIOSes know how to boot from a CD-ROM, so we want to create a bootable CD-ROM image, containing our kernel and the GRUB bootloader's files, in a single file called an ISO. Make the following directory structure and copy the kernel.bin to the right place:

isofiles
└── boot
    ├── grub
    │   └── grub.cfg
    └── kernel.bin

The grub.cfg specifies the file name of our kernel and its Multiboot 2 compliance. It looks like this:

set timeout=0
set default=0

menuentry "my os" {
    multiboot2 /boot/kernel.bin
    boot
}

Now we can create a bootable image using the command:

grub-mkrescue -o os.iso isofiles

Note: grub-mkrescue causes problems on some platforms. If it does not work for you, try the following steps:

🔗 Booting

Now it's time to boot our OS. We will use QEMU:

qemu-system-x86_64 -cdrom os.iso

qemu output

Notice the green OK in the upper left corner. If it does not work for you, take a look at the comment section.

Let's summarize what happens:

  1. the BIOS loads the bootloader (GRUB) from the virtual CD-ROM (the ISO)
  2. the bootloader reads the kernel executable and finds the Multiboot header
  3. it copies the .boot and .text sections to memory (to addresses 0x100000 and 0x100020)
  4. it jumps to the entry point (0x100020, you can obtain it through objdump -f)
  5. our kernel prints the green OK and stops the CPU

You can test it on real hardware, too. Just burn the ISO to a disk or USB stick and boot from it.

🔗 Build Automation

Right now we need to execute 4 commands in the right order every time we change a file. That's bad. So let's automate the build using a Makefile. But first we should create some clean directory structure for our source files to separate the architecture specific files:

…
├── Makefile
└── src
    └── arch
        └── x86_64
            ├── multiboot_header.asm
            ├── boot.asm
            ├── linker.ld
            └── grub.cfg

The Makefile looks like this (indented with tabs instead of spaces):

arch ?= x86_64
kernel := build/kernel-$(arch).bin
iso := build/os-$(arch).iso

linker_script := src/arch/$(arch)/linker.ld
grub_cfg := src/arch/$(arch)/grub.cfg
assembly_source_files := $(wildcard src/arch/$(arch)/*.asm)
assembly_object_files := $(patsubst src/arch/$(arch)/%.asm, \
    build/arch/$(arch)/%.o, $(assembly_source_files))

.PHONY: all clean run iso

all: $(kernel)

clean:
    @rm -r build

run: $(iso)
    @qemu-system-x86_64 -cdrom $(iso)

iso: $(iso)

$(iso): $(kernel) $(grub_cfg)
    @mkdir -p build/isofiles/boot/grub
    @cp $(kernel) build/isofiles/boot/kernel.bin
    @cp $(grub_cfg) build/isofiles/boot/grub
    @grub-mkrescue -o $(iso) build/isofiles 2> /dev/null
    @rm -r build/isofiles

$(kernel): $(assembly_object_files) $(linker_script)
    @ld -n -T $(linker_script) -o $(kernel) $(assembly_object_files)

# compile assembly files
build/arch/$(arch)/%.o: src/arch/$(arch)/%.asm
    @mkdir -p $(shell dirname $@)
    @nasm -felf64 $< -o $@

Some comments (see the Makefile tutorial if you don't know make):

Now we can invoke make and all updated assembly files are compiled and linked. The make iso command also creates the ISO image and make run will additionally start QEMU.

🔗 What's next?

In the next post we will create a page table and do some CPU configuration to switch to the 64-bit long mode.

🔗 Footnotes

1

The formula from the table, -(magic + architecture + header_length), creates a negative value that doesn't fit into 32bit. By subtracting from 0x100000000 (= 2^(32)) instead, we keep the value positive without changing its truncated value. Without the additional sign bit(s) the result fits into 32bit and the compiler is happy :).

2

We don't want to load the kernel to e.g. 0x0 because there are many special memory areas below the 1MB mark (for example the so-called VGA buffer at 0xb8000, that we use to print OK to the screen).

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